Open Source Sustainable Energy Systems to build for your community

For further scientific research and evaluation of solution energy such as the kind featured at Panacea University check out http://www.infinite-energy.com/

Alistair, thanks for the comment and good ideas, certainly would welcome anyone else who is exploring this indepth to share their research, but as i said one really needs to understand the how the ether behaves, taking that into account is a bit of a challenge considering it behaves uniquely to what mainstream beliefs might theorize. There is a lot of fear for people involved in this as Brian O' Leary points out all the movers and shakers that feature in his book the energy solution revolution have died in strange circumstances, most are beleived to have been murderd by the oligarchy to keep this knowledge suppressed.

If people do their own research and calculations, build devices as given by free instruction from the Panacea University, experiment, evaluate and share with others thats brilliant, instead of expecting other people to do all the work and research for us, self education is the only way we are going to learn that these devices work instead of waiting for some government to impliment them as that is not going to happen since the profit from the archaic energy monopoly .

power to the people =)

http://sailingbeyondknowledge.podOmatic.com

unfolding an ever evolving humanity

better not to make assumptions but to investigate for yourself rather than just arguing and assuming that the information i have provided are based on ''claims'', by a highly accreditated professor of physics Brian O' Leary is a highly respected physicist and solution energy advocate, with incredible credentials and who's book documents the work and experiments of at least 25 or more alternative energy scientists, he also used to work for NASA!

By saying that if these devises existed we would all have one, it is simply not true! Hence the energy giants controlling and supressing the availability of these technologies to humanity.

http://sailingbeyondknowledge.podOmatic.com

unfolding an ever evolving humanity

I don't trust an on-line encyclopedia that i know for a fact controls what is logged and those behind wiki have an agenda to also control and supress this kind of knowledge. From my own research there is definately scientific evidence presented of devices drawing energy from zero point which Tesla himself proved hence his many patented inventions which you can download in the forum next to this one hosted by Gunte . Anyway i continue to be open to other views but it does not mean those views will sway my own investigation and perspective. =)

http://sailingbeyondknowledge.podOmatic.com

unfolding an ever evolving humanity

"It is the customary fate of new truths, to begin as heresies, and to end as superstitions.''
Thomas Huxley

I do actually have quite a good intuition =)

Einstein's theories were opposed to many of the the work of Tesla' and Reich's discoveries, some scientists work are sponsored and such scientists are made gods if their discoveries serve the oligarchic agenda and others are publicly slandered, dispatched or left to die in prison cells if their discoveries serve humanity but defy and challenge the oligarchic machine.

Regarding Tesla's work, some in the government were so threatened by his discoveries and the implications it had on mainstream science that Tesla's laboratory was blown up, this was supposed to happen while he was in it......... the technologies used by the oligarchy are over a century or more ahead of what is provided to what they refer to us, the human being instead as the' consumer', as it we will consume what they serve us.

Here is one example of how advanced these technologies are with evidence of cold fusion and the Hutchinson effect for horrifying destructive purposes:

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=85UAFYo0GmI

An interesting interview with Andrew Johnson who talks about Hutchinson effect, he explains his theory on how the towers were destroyed by some new cold fusion type technology not thermite, which is why the steel turned to dust when they were destroyed with very little or no heat. He talks about cars on fire half a mile from the site and witnesses and things levitating by the site due to anti-gravity technology. Everything turned to dust.

The military use technologies based on Tesla's work (among others that have been publicly discredited), for malevolent purposes, many of the 400+ whistle blowers (with full credentials if that's what you are hung up on), speak of this , such as those in Dr Greer's Disclosure campaign for governments to disclose they are sitting on this technology, while we are destroying the planet. And I have already provided links to O' Leary but again people were quick to slander rather than say 'oh i will check his work out.'

There's a lot of ground to cover here and lots of angles to this, rather than covering ground you might assume as conspiracy theorist, or philosophizing knowledge and philosophizing science and 'proof'. Panacea are just one research organization that are running and building these proofs. If you want proof, build one of the machines from the blue prints provided if you have your own facilities and means to do so, get friends involved but do not keep going round in circles and repeating questions that have already been given avenues to further research, continue to do the research.

One is not going to find answers in mainstream science or governments, with regards to solution energy, can you not see it is a threat to archaic power structures which is why it is suppressed. Some people are actually paid to spend their time commenting around free energy forums trying to slander anyone that comes up with viable information on solution energy. It is good to ask questions and be critical, but at the same time comments here have only been hypocritical by not disproving any of the information provided by actually taking the information in, there seems to be a biased to not even follow many of the links given and immediate slander is the reaction rather than going away and reading the books, comments then assume that any such books will only contain 'false claims'' rather than proof. well that in itself is a massive assumption and demonstration of prejudice rather than open investigation.

Giving specific personal credentials would also help before jumping into slandering work, instead commentors have simply said they themselves have outstanding experience in the field. This itself is rather suspicious, if one is willing to beef themselves up whilst criticising opposing information that has not been investigated further and the commentor has not being specific about their so called excellent experience and credentials or background...

lots of questions have been laid on the table, but nothing practical to disprove any of this information which is based on practical working filmed /photographed experiments and built working devices based on peoples years of extensive research.

All that is happening is discrediting with words rather than investigating the proposed without prejudice, by lack of willing to follow any of the links so far provided, which does demonstrate massive bias.

In the realm of what we are discussing, one cannot be critical until oneself have practically evaluated these devices by proving the experiments wrong if that's your objective, then with building one such device for yourself and experimenting with it and if it does not work then let us know, rather than regurgitating old archaic belief systems. I agree and am aware there is a lot of disinformation floating about because of this, however i doubt that Panacea is a part of this disinformation movement.

If it defies your own basis of scientific learning, do not consider it wrong until you yourself have practically investigated it, unless you have another agenda to fill in these comment boxes here. We have to go through accepting all of us, have only been taught a slither of the whole story, power of the kind that is supposed to serve humanity is only self serving and keeps itself in power by way of suppressing and controlling information.

In order to make a transit to a new paradigm, from an old consciousness belief system I personally shall continue to pass on information here as and when i come by it, but in the mean time, if you seek proof, you can provide it yourself by re-evaluating your own set of beliefs and using material that many have put out to discover what ZP energy really means and is, which the **Casimir effect prooves exists, starting off with the understanding that earth has an natural energy field running through it and around it called ether, orgone, chi as do all living things an energy source which can be tapped into and by studying in depth the work of Tesla and Reich among others, i shall continue to share on my own journey without prejudice.

**The Casimir Effect

a special capaciter to produce over unity energy, demonstrated in many laboratories designed to tap zero point energy, used in many space programmes to power various missions.

Below are exerpts from various websites for those that require this kind of validation, but there is a plethora of information on the Casimir Effect (Zero Point Energy and experiments tapping into it on the internet), it explains in terms of physics and mathematics based on experiments done in government laboratories how one can tap zero point energy, again i reiterate, this has been done in government laboratories.

A presentation to start off by G. Bimonte :
http://paft08.sa.infn.it/contributi/Bimonte.pdf
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Sep 20, 2002
The Casimir effect: a force from nothing
http://nanotechweb.org/cws/article/tech/9922
The attractive force between two surfaces in a vacuum - first predicted by Hendrik Casimir over 50 years ago - could affect everything from micromachines to unified theories of nature.
Technology update

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http://nanotechweb.org/cws/article/tech/9922
Sep 20, 2002
The Casimir effect: a force from nothing

The attractive force between two surfaces in a vacuum - first predicted by Hendrik Casimir over 50 years ago - could affect everything from micromachines to unified theories of nature.

What happens if you take two mirrors and arrange them so that they are facing each other in empty space? Your first reaction might be "nothing at all". In fact, both mirrors are mutually attracted to each other by the simple presence of the vacuum. This startling phenomenon was first predicted in 1948 by the Dutch theoretical physicist Hendrik Casimir while he was working at Philips Research Laboratories in Eindhoven on - of all things - colloidal solutions (see box). The phenomenon is now dubbed the Casimir effect, while the force between the mirrors is known as the Casimir force.

For many years the Casimir effect was little more than a theoretical curiosity. But interest in the phenomenon has blossomed in recent years. Experimental physicists have realized that the Casimir force affects the workings of micromachined devices, while advances in instrumentation have enabled the force to be measured with ever-greater accuracy.

The new enthusiasm has also been fired by fundamental physics. Many theorists have predicted the existence of "large" extra dimensions in 10- and 11-dimensional unified field theories of the fundamental forces. These dimensions, they say, could modify classical Newtonian gravitation at sub-millimetre distances. Measuring the Casimir effect could therefore help physicists to test the validity of such radical ideas.

Casimir and colloids
The fact that an attractive force exists between two conducting metal plates was first predicted in 1948 by Hendrik Casimir of Philips Research Laboratories in the Netherlands. At the time, however, Casimir was studying the properties of "colloidal solutions". These are viscous materials, such as paint and mayonnaise, that contain micron-sized particles in a liquid matrix. The properties of such solutions are determined by van der Waals forces - long-range, attractive forces that exist between neutral atoms and molecules.

One of Casimir's colleagues, Theo Overbeek, realized that the theory that was used at the time to explain van der Waals forces, which had been developed by Fritz London in 1932, did not properly explain the experimental measurements on colloids. Overbeek therefore asked Casimir to investigate the problem. Working with Dirk Polder, Casimir discovered that the interaction between two neutral molecules could be correctly described only if the fact that light travels at a finite speed was taken into account.

Soon afterwards, Casimir noticed that this result could be interpreted in terms of vacuum fluctuations. He then asked himself what would happen if there were two mirrors - rather than two molecules - facing each other in a vacuum. It was this work that led to his famous prediction of an attractive force between reflecting plates.

Back to text
Understanding the Casimir force

Although the Casimir force seems completely counterintuitive, it is actually well understood. In the old days of classical mechanics the idea of a vacuum was simple. The vacuum was what remained if you emptied a container of all its particles and lowered the temperature down to absolute zero. The arrival of quantum mechanics, however, completely changed our notion of a vacuum. All fields - in particular electromagnetic fields - have fluctuations. In other words at any given moment their actual value varies around a constant, mean value. Even a perfect vacuum at absolute zero has fluctuating fields known as "vacuum fluctuations", the mean energy of which corresponds to half the energy of a photon.

However, vacuum fluctuations are not some abstraction of a physicist's mind. They have observable consequences that can be directly visualized in experiments on a microscopic scale. For example, an atom in an excited state will not remain there infinitely long, but will return to its ground state by spontaneously emitting a photon. This phenomenon is a consequence of vacuum fluctuations. Imagine trying to hold a pencil upright on the end of your finger. It will stay there if your hand is perfectly stable and nothing perturbs the equilibrium. But the slightest perturbation will make the pencil fall into a more stable equilibrium position. Similarly, vacuum fluctuations cause an excited atom to fall into its ground state.

The Casimir force
Figure 1

The Casimir force is the most famous mechanical effect of vacuum fluctuations. Consider the gap between two plane mirrors as a cavity (figure 1). All electromagnetic fields have a characteristic "spectrum" containing many different frequencies. In a free vacuum all of the frequencies are of equal importance. But inside a cavity, where the field is reflected back and forth between the mirrors, the situation is different. The field is amplified if integer multiples of half a wavelength can fit exactly inside the cavity. This wavelength corresponds to a "cavity resonance". At other wavelengths, in contrast, the field is suppressed. Vacuum fluctuations are suppressed or enhanced depending on whether their frequency corresponds to a cavity resonance or not.

An important physical quantity when discussing the Casimir force is the "field radiation pressure". Every field - even the vacuum field - carries energy. As all electromagnetic fields can propagate in space they also exert pressure on surfaces, just as a flowing river pushes on a floodgate. This radiation pressure increases with the energy - and hence the frequency - of the electromagnetic field. At a cavity-resonance frequency the radiation pressure inside the cavity is stronger than outside and the mirrors are therefore pushed apart. Out of resonance, in contrast, the radiation pressure inside the cavity is smaller than outside and the mirrors are drawn towards each other.

It turns out that, on balance, the attractive components have a slightly stronger impact than the repulsive ones. For two perfect, plane, parallel mirrors the Casimir force is therefore attractive and the mirrors are pulled together. The force, F, is proportional to the cross-sectional area, A, of the mirrors and increases 16-fold every time the distance, d, between the mirrors is halved: F ~ A/d4. Apart from these geometrical quantities the force depends only on fundamental values - Planck's constant and the speed of light.

While the Casimir force is too small to be observed for mirrors that are several metres apart, it can be measured if the mirrors are within microns of each other. For example, two mirrors with an area of 1 cm2 separated by a distance of 1 µm have an attractive Casimir force of about 10-7 N - roughly the weight of a water droplet that is half a millimetre in diameter. Although this force might appear small, at distances below a micrometre the Casimir force becomes the strongest force between two neutral objects. Indeed at separations of 10 nm - about a hundred times the typical size of an atom - the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of 1 atmosphere of pressure.

Although we do not deal directly with such small distances in our everyday lives, they are important in nanoscale structures and microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). These are "intelligent" micron-sized devices in which mechanical elements and moving parts, such as tiny sensors and actuators, are carved into a silicon substrate. Electronic components are then wired on to the device to process information that it senses or to drive the movement of its mechanical parts. MEMS have many possible applications in science and engineering, and are already used as car air-bag pressure sensors.

The Casimir force in microdevices
Figure 2

As MEMS devices are fabricated on the micron and submicron scale, the Casimir force can cause the tiny elements in a device to stick together - as reported recently by Michael Roukes and co-workers at the California Institute of Technology (2001 Phys. Rev. B 63 033402). But the Casimir force can also be put to good use. Last year Federico Capasso and his group at Lucent Technologies showed how the force can be used to control the mechanical motion of a MEMS device (2001 Science 291 1941). The researchers suspended a polysilicon plate from a torsional rod - a twisting horizontal bar just a few microns in diameter (figure 2). When they brought a metallized sphere close up to the plate, the attractive Casimir force between the two objects made the plate rotate. They also studied the dynamical behaviour of the MEMS device by making the plate oscillate. The Casimir force reduced the rate of oscillation and led to nonlinear phenomena, such as hysteresis and bistability in the frequency response of the oscillator. According to the team, the system's behaviour agreed well with theoretical calculations.

Measuring the Casimir effect

When the Casimir effect was first predicted in 1948 it was very difficult to measure using the equipment of the time. One of the first experiments was carried out in 1958 by Marcus Spaarnay at Philips in Eindhoven, who investigated the Casimir force between two flat, metallic mirrors made from either aluminium, chromium or steel. Spaarnay measured the force using a spring balance, the extension of which was determined by the capacitance of the two plates. To prevent the Casimir force from being swamped by the electrostatic force, the mirrors had to be kept neutral by first touching them together before each measurement was made. Spaarnay also had to ensure that the plane mirrors were exactly parallel to each other, as the Casimir force is very sensitive to changes in distance. Spaarnay managed to overcome these difficulties and concluded that his results "did not contradict Casimir's theoretical prediction".

Since those early days, however, sophisticated equipment has made it much easier to study the Casimir effect. A new generation of measurements began in 1997. Steve Lamoreaux, who was then at the University of Washington in Seattle, measured the Casimir force between a 4 cm diameter spherical lens and an optical quartz plate about 2.5 cm across, both of which were coated with copper and gold. The lens and plate were connected to a torsion pendulum - a twisting horizontal bar suspended by a tungsten wire - placed in a cylindrical vessel under vacuum. When Lamoreaux brought the lens and plate together to within several microns of each other, the Casimir force pulled the two objects together and caused the pendulum to twist. He found that his experimental measurements agreed with theory to an accuracy of 5%.

Casimir force tips the balance
Figure 3

Inspired by Lamoreaux's breakthrough, many other researchers tried new Casimir measurements. Umar Mohideen and co-workers at the University of California at Riverside, for example, attached a polystyrene sphere 200 µm in diameter to the tip of atomic force microscope (figure 3). In a series of experiments they brought the sphere, which was coated with either aluminium or gold, to within 0.1 µm of a flat disk, which was also coated with these metals. The resulting attraction between the sphere and the disk was monitored by the deviation of a laser beam. The researchers were able to measure the Casimir force to within 1% of the expected theoretical value.

Cylindrical attraction
Figure 4

Thomas Ederth at the Royal Institute of Technology in Stockholm, Sweden, has also used an atomic force microscope to study the Casimir effect. He measured the force between two gold-coated cylinders that were arranged at 90° to each other and that were as little as 20 nm apart. His results agreed to within 1% of theory (figure 4).

However, very few recent experiments have measured the Casimir force using the original configuration of two plane, parallel mirrors. The reason is that the mirrors have to be kept perfectly parallel during the experiment, which is difficult. It is much easier to bring a sphere close up to a mirror because the separation between the two objects is simply the distance of closest approach. The only drawback of using a sphere and a plane mirror is that the calculations of the Casimir force are not as accurate as those between two plane mirrors. In particular it has to be assumed that the contributions to the force between the sphere and plate are completely independent at each point. This is true only if the radius of the sphere is much larger than the distance between it and the plate.

The only recent experiment to replicate Casimir's original set-up of two plane, parallel mirrors was carried out by Gianni Carugno, Roberto Onofrio and co-workers at the University of Padova in Italy. They measured the force between a rigid chromium-coated plate and the flat surface of a cantilever made from the same material that were separated by distances ranging from 0.5-3 µm (G Bressi et al. 2002 Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 041804). The researchers found that the measured Casimir force agreed to within 15% of the expected theoretical value. This relatively poor fit reflected the technical difficulties involved in the experiment.

Improved calculations

The problem with studying the Casimir effect is that real mirrors are not like the perfectly smooth plane mirrors that Hendrik Casimir originally considered. In particular, real mirrors do not reflect all frequencies perfectly. They reflect some frequencies well - or even nearly perfectly - while others are reflected badly. In addition, all mirrors become transparent at very high frequencies. When calculating the Casimir force the frequency-dependent reflection coefficients of the mirrors have to be taken into account - a problem first tackled by Evgeny Lifshitz in the mid-1950s, and then by Julian Schwinger and many others.

It turns out that the measured Casimir force between real metallic mirrors that are 0.1 µm apart is only half the theoretical value predicted for perfect mirrors. If this discrepancy is not taken into account when comparing experimental data with theory, then an experimental measurement could erroneously be interpreted as a new force. My colleague Serge Reynaud and I have taken into account the real behaviour of mirrors in our calculations using the physical properties of the metals themselves. We found that the simple solid-state models of the mirror match the real behaviour only above 0.5 µm.

Another problem with calculating the expected Casimir force for a real system is the fact that experiments are never carried out at absolute zero - as originally envisaged in Casimir's calculations - but at room temperature. This causes thermal - as well as vacuum - fluctuations to come into play. These thermal fluctuations can produce their own radiation pressure and create a bigger Casimir force than expected. For example, the Casimir force between two plane mirrors 7 µm apart is twice as large at room temperature than at absolute zero. Fortunately, thermal fluctuations at room temperature are only important at distances above 1 µm, below which the wavelength of the fluctuations is too big to fit inside the cavity.

Although the temperature dependence of the Casimir force has not yet been studied in detail experimentally, it must be included in calculations of the force at separations above 1 µm. Many researchers have tackled this problem for perfectly reflecting mirrors, including Lifshitz and Schwinger back in the 1950s. It has also been examined more recently by Michael Bordag at Leipzig University, Bo Sernelius at Linköping University in Sweden, Galina Klimchitskaya and Vladimir Mostepanenko at the University of Paraiba in Brazil, and by our group in Paris. Indeed the temperature dependence of the Casimir force was for some time a matter of hot debate in the community. The various contradictions, however, now seem to have been resolved, and this has given an additional motivation to an experimental observation of the influence of temperature on the Casimir force.

A third and final problem in calculating the Casimir force is that real mirrors are not perfectly smooth. Most mirrors are made by coating a substrate with a thin metal film using the technique of "sputtering". However, this produces films with a roughness of about 50 nm. While such roughness is invisible to the naked eye, it does affect measurements of the Casimir force, which is very sensitive to small changes in distance.

Mohideen and his group in California have recently used surface deformations to show that two surfaces can also have a lateral Casimir force that acts in a parallel - rather than a perpendicular - direction to the surface of the mirrors. In the experiments they prepared specially corrugated mirrors the surfaces of which were sinusoidally curved. They then moved the mirrors parallel to one another so that a peak of one mirror passed successively over the peaks and troughs of the other mirror. The researchers found that the lateral Casimir force varied sinusoidally with the phase difference between the two corrugations. The size of the force was about ten times smaller than the ordinary Casimir force between two mirrors the same distance apart. The lateral force is also due to vacuum fluctuations.

Mehran Kadar and co-workers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology have calculated a theoretical value for the force between two perfectly reflecting corrugated mirrors, while Mohideen and colleagues evaluated the lateral force for metallic mirrors and found good agreement with experiment. The lateral Casimir force may have yet another consequence for micromachines.

New physics?

The Casimir effect could also play a role in accurate force measurements between the nanometre and micrometre scales. Newton's inverse-square law of gravitation has been tested many times at macroscopic distances by observing the motion of planets. But no-one has so far managed to verify the law at micron length scales with any great precision. Such tests are important because many theoretical models that attempt to unify the four fundamental forces of nature predict the existence of previously undiscovered forces that would act at such scales. Any deviation between experiment and theory could hint at the existence of new forces. But all is not lost even if both values agree: the measurements would then put new limits on existing theories.

Jens Gundlach and colleagues at Washington, for example, have used a torsion pendulum to determine the gravitational force between two test masses separated by distances from 10 mm down to 220 µm. Their measurements confirmed that Newtonian gravitation operates in this regime but that the Casimir force dominates at shorter distances. Meanwhile Joshua Long, John Price and colleagues at the University of Colorado - together with Ephraim Fischbach and co-workers from Purdue University - are trying to eliminate the Casimir effect altogether from sub-millimetre tests of gravitation by carefully selecting the materials used in the experiment.

This article only gives a flavour of the many experimental and theoretical studies of the Casimir effect. There are many other exciting developments as well. Many groups are, for example, looking at what would happen if the interaction between two mirrors is mediated not by an electromagnetic field - which is made up of massless bosons - but by fields made of massive fermions, such as quarks or neutrinos. Other research teams, meanwhile, are studying the Casimir effect with different topologies, such as Möbius strips and doughnut-shaped objects.

But despite the intensive efforts of researchers in the field, many unsolved problems about the Casimir effect remain. In particular the seemingly innocent question of the Casimir force within a single hollow sphere is still a matter of lively debate. People are not even sure if the force is attractive or repulsive. Hendrik Casimir himself thought about this problem as early as 1953 while looking for a stable model for the electron. Half a century on, the mysteries of the Casimir force are likely to keep us entertained for many years to come.
About the author

Astrid Lambrecht is in the Laboratoire Kastler Brossel, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Ecole Normale Supérieure, Centre National de Recherche Scientifique, Campus Jussieu, Case 74, F-75252 Paris cedex 05,France, email lambrecht@spectro.jussieu.fr. This article first appeared in the September issue of Physics World.
Further reading

M Bordag, U Mohideen and V M Mostepanenko 2001 New developments in the Casimir effect Phys. Rep. 353 1 H B Chan et al. 2001 Nonlinear micromechanical Casimir oscillator Phys. Rev. Lett. 87 211801 F Chen and U Mohideen 2002 Demonstration of the lateral Casimir force Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 101801 C Genet, A Lambrecht and S Reynaud 2000 Temperature dependence of the Casimir force between metallic mirrors Phys. Rev. A 62 012110 S K Lamoreaux 1997 Demonstration of the Casimir force in the 0.6 to 6 micrometer range Phys. Rev. Lett. 78 5 K A Milton 2001 The Casimir Effect: Physical Manifestations of Zero-point Energy (World Scientific, Singapore) Buy the book: Amazon UK/Amazon US
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http://www.casimir.rl.ac.uk/default.htm

Introduction
Quantum mechanics was one of the most outstanding physical theories of the twentieth century. It revealed Nature at the microscopic scale as a strange and fascinating scientific object which seems to defy natural human intuition developed through our every day experience. Though this quantum character is present everywhere as the building block of the physical world, it seldom revels itself at a macroscopic level. The Casimir effect is one of those rare exceptions where a quantum effect can have significant consequences beyond the atomic level.

The radiation pressure exerted on a pair of parrallel plates The simplest form of the Casimir effect was predicted in 1948 by H.B.G. Casimir and consists in the attraction between a pair of neutral, parallel conducting plates placed in the vacuum. This attractive force has a purely quantum origin and cannot be obtained using the classical description of electromagnetic field since it is a direct consequence of the existence of Zero-Point Fluctuations: a turmoil of virtual particles that come in and out of existence and that can violate the energy-momentum conservation of the system for very short periods of time, as described by Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. The fluctuating virtual particles exert a "radiation pressure" on the plates which on average is greater outside the plates than between them - as shown in the diagram.

Though the Casimir effect is expected to exist for any type of quantum field, in most cases this phenomena is considered for the electromagnetic field in view of the fact that this is the strongest fundamental interaction and it is the most likely to generate measurable effects.

It should be noticed that the prefix Casimir is now often used in wide range of effects related to Zero-Point Fluctuations, which extend far beyond the Casimir force and the initial Casimir effect. In fact, Zero-Point Fluctuations exist everywhere and are responsible for an infinite amount of energy in the universe, hence they may be expected to have vast bearing in many scientific problems.

An important characteristic of the Casimir effect is that it is a macroscopic quantum effect. For two plane parallel metallic plates of area of 1cm2 separated by a large distance (on the atomic scale) of 1 micron, the value of the attractive force is approximately 10-7N. This force is quite small but is now within the range of modern laboratory force measurement techniques.

The main feature of the Casimir force is its strong dependence on shape, switching from attractive to repulsive as a function of the geometry and of the coupling with the constraining objects. This makes the Casimir a strong candidate for applications in nano-technologies and micro or nanoelectromechanical devices (MEMS and NEMS).
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Casimir Effect for space travel
http://www.docstoc.com/docs/29077125/The-Casimir-Effect-Space-Travel-Rea...

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casimir_effect
In quantum field theory, the Casimir effect and the Casimir-Polder force are physical forces arising from a quantized field. The typical example is of two uncharged metallic plates in a vacuum, placed a few micrometers apart, without any external electromagnetic field. In a classical description, the lack of an external field also means that there is no field between the plates, and no force would be measured between them.

[1] When this field is instead studied using quantum electrodynamics, it is seen that the plates do affect the virtual photons which constitute the field, and generate a net force

[2]—either an attraction or a repulsion depending on the specific arrangement of the two plates. Although the Casimir effect can be expressed in terms of virtual particles interacting with the objects, it is best described and more easily calculated in terms of the zero-point energy of a quantized field in the intervening space between the objects. This force has been measured, and is a striking example of an effect purely due to second quantization.

[3][4] However, the treatment of boundary conditions in these calculations has led to some controversy. In fact "Casimir's original goal was to compute the van der Waals force between polarizable molecules" of the metallic plates. Thus it can be interpreted without any reference to the zero-point energy (vacuum energy) or virtual particles of quantum fields.

[5]Dutch physicists Hendrik B. G. Casimir and Dirk Polder proposed the existence of the force and formulated an experiment to detect it in 1948 while participating in research at Philips Research Labs. The classic form of the experiment, described above, successfully demonstrated the force to within 15% of the value predicted by the theory.

[6] Because the strength of the force falls off rapidly with distance, it is only measurable when the distance between the objects is extremely small. On a submicrometre scale, this force becomes so strong that it becomes the dominant force between uncharged conductors. In fact, at separations of 10 nm—about 100 times the typical size of an atom—the Casimir effect produces the equivalent of 1 atmosphere of pressure (101.3 kPa), the precise value depending on surface geometry and other factors.

[7] In modern theoretical physics, the Casimir effect plays an important role in the chiral bag model of the nucleon; and in applied physics, it is significant in some aspects of emerging microtechnologies and nanotechnologies.

[8]
Contents
[hide]

* 1 Overview
* 2 Vacuum energy
* 3 The Casimir effect
* 4 Casimir's calculation
o 4.1 More recent theory
* 5 Measurement
* 6 Regularisation
* 7 Generalities
* 8 Casimir effect and wormholes
* 9 Analogies and the Dynamic Casimir Effect
* 10 Repulsive forces
* 11 Applications
* 12 See also
* 13 References
* 14 Further reading
* 15 External links

[edit] Overview

The Casimir effect can be understood by the idea that the presence of conducting metals and dielectrics alters the vacuum expectation value of the energy of the second quantized electromagnetic field.

[9] Since the value of this energy depends on the shapes and positions of the conductors and dielectrics, the Casimir effect makes itself manifest as a force between such objects.
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Main article: Vacuum energy

The causes of the Casimir effect are described by quantum field theory, which states that all of the various fundamental fields, such as the electromagnetic field, must be quantized at each and every point in space. In a simplified view, a "field" in physics may be envisioned as if space were filled with interconnected vibrating balls and springs, and the strength of the field can be visualized as the displacement of a ball from its rest position. Vibrations in this field propagate and are governed by the appropriate wave equation for the particular field in question. The second quantization of quantum field theory requires that each such ball-spring combination be quantized, that is, that the strength of the field be quantized at each point in space. Canonically, the field at each point in space is a simple harmonic oscillator, and its quantization places a quantum harmonic oscillator at each point. Excitations of the field correspond to the elementary particles of particle physics. However, even the vacuum has a vastly complex structure, so all calculations of quantum field theory must be made in relation to this model of the vacuum.

The vacuum has, implicitly, all of the properties that a particle may have: spin, or polarization in the case of light, energy, and so on. On average, all of these properties cancel out: the vacuum is, after all, "empty" in this sense. One important exception is the vacuum energy or the vacuum expectation value of the energy. The quantization of a simple harmonic oscillator states that the lowest possible energy or zero-point energy that such an oscillator may have is

{E} = \begin{matrix} \frac{1}{2} \end{matrix} \hbar \omega \ .
(for the mathematics and stats go to the website)

Summing over all possible oscillators at all points in space gives an infinite quantity. To remove this infinity, one may argue that only differences in energy are physically measurable; this argument is the underpinning of the theory of renormalization. In all practical calculations, this is how the infinity is always handled. In a deeper sense, however, renormalization is unsatisfying, and the removal of this infinity presents a challenge in the search for a Theory of Everything. Currently there is no compelling explanation for how this infinity should be treated as essentially zero; a non-zero value is essentially the cosmological constant and any large value causes trouble in cosmology.
The Casimir effect

Casimir's observation was that the second-quantized quantum electromagnetic field, in the presence of bulk bodies such as metals or dielectrics, must obey the same boundary conditions that the classical electromagnetic field must obey. In particular, this affects the calculation of the vacuum energy in the presence of a conductor or dielectric.

Consider, for example, the calculation of the vacuum expectation value of the electromagnetic field inside a metal cavity, such as, for example, a radar cavity or a microwave waveguide. In this case, the correct way to find the zero point energy of the field is to sum the energies of the standing waves of the cavity. To each and every possible standing wave corresponds an energy; say the energy of the nth standing wave is En. The vacuum expectation value of the energy of the electromagnetic field in the cavity is then

\langle E \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n E_n
(for the sums go to the website)

with the sum running over all possible values of n enumerating the standing waves. The factor of 1/2 corresponds to the fact that the zero-point energies are being summed (it is the same 1/2 as appears in the equation E=\hbar \omega/2). Written in this way, this sum is clearly divergent; however, it can be used to create finite expressions.

In particular, one may ask how the zero point energy depends on the shape s of the cavity. Each energy level En depends on the shape, and so one should write En(s) for the energy level, and \langle E(s) \rangle for the vacuum expectation value. At this point comes an important observation: the force at point p on the wall of the cavity is equal to the change in the vacuum energy if the shape s of the wall is perturbed a little bit, say by δs, at point p. That is, one has

F(p) = - \left. \frac{\delta \langle E(s) \rangle} {\delta s} \right\vert_p\,

This value is finite in many practical calculations.[10]
[edit] Casimir's calculation

In the original calculation done by Casimir, he considered the space between a pair of conducting metal plates at distance a apart. In this case, the standing waves are particularly easy to calculate, since the transverse component of the electric field and the normal component of the magnetic field must vanish on the surface of a conductor. Assuming the parallel plates lie in the x-y plane, the standing waves are

\psi_n(x,y,z,t) = e^{-i\omega_nt} e^{ik_xx+ik_yy} \sin \left( k_n z \right)

where ψ stands for the electric component of the electromagnetic field, and, for brevity, the polarization and the magnetic components are ignored here. Here, kx and ky are the wave vectors in directions parallel to the plates, and

k_n = \frac{n\pi}{a}

is the wave-vector perpendicular to the plates. Here, n is an integer, resulting from the requirement that ψ vanish on the metal plates. The energy of this wave is

\omega_n = c \sqrt{{k_x}^2 + {k_y}^2 + \frac{n^2\pi^2}{a^2}}

where c is the speed of light. The vacuum energy is then the sum over all possible excitation modes

\langle E \rangle = \frac{\hbar}{2} \cdot 2 \int \frac{dk_x dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=1}^\infty A\omega_n

where A is the area of the metal plates, and a factor of 2 is introduced for the two possible polarizations of the wave. This expression is clearly infinite, and to proceed with the calculation, it is convenient to introduce a regulator (discussed in greater detail below). The regulator will serve to make the expression finite, and in the end will be removed. The zeta-regulated version of the energy per unit-area of the plate is

\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = \hbar \int \frac{dk_x dk_y}{(2\pi)^2} \sum_{n=1}^\infty \omega_n \vert \omega_n\vert^{-s}

In the end, the limit s\to 0 is to be taken. Here s is just a complex number, not to be confused with the shape discussed previously. This integral/sum is finite for s real and larger than 3. The sum has a pole at s=3, but may be analytically continued to s=0, where the expression is finite. Expanding this, one gets

\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = \frac{\hbar c^{1-s}}{4\pi^2} \sum_n \int_0^\infty 2\pi qdq \left \vert q^2 + \frac{\pi^2 n^2}{a^2} \right\vert^{(1-s)/2}

where polar coordinates q^2 = k_x^2+k_y^2 were introduced to turn the double integral into a single integral. The q in front is the Jacobian, and the 2π comes from the angular integration. The integral is easily performed, resulting in

\frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = -\frac {\hbar c^{1-s} \pi^{2-s}}{2a^{3-s}} \frac{1}{3-s} \sum_n \vert n\vert ^{3-s}

The sum may be understood to be the Riemann zeta function, and so one has

\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = \lim_{s\to 0} \frac{\langle E(s) \rangle}{A} = -\frac {\hbar c \pi^{2}}{6a^{3}} \zeta (-3)

But ζ( − 3) = 1 / 120 and so one obtains

\frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = \frac {-\hbar c \pi^{2}}{3 \cdot 240 a^{3}}

The Casimir force per unit area Fc / A for idealized, perfectly conducting plates with vacuum between them is

{F_c \over A} = - \frac{d}{da} \frac{\langle E \rangle}{A} = -\frac {\hbar c \pi^2} {240 a^4}

where

\hbar (hbar, ħ) is the reduced Planck constant,
c is the speed of light,
a is the distance between the two plates.

The force is negative, indicating that the force is attractive: by moving the two plates closer together, the energy is lowered. The presence of \hbar shows that the Casimir force per unit area Fc / A is very small, and that furthermore, the force is inherently of quantum-mechanical origin.
[edit] More recent theory

A very complete analysis of the Casimir effect at short distances is based upon a detailed analysis of the van der Waals force by Lifshitz.[11][12] Using this approach, complications of the bounding surfaces, such as the modifications to the Casimir force due to finite conductivity, can be calculated numerically using the tabulated complex dielectric functions of the bounding materials. In addition to these factors, complications arise due to surface roughness of the boundary and to geometry effects such as degree of parallelism of bounding plates.

For boundaries at large separations, retardation effects give rise to a long-range interaction. For the case of two parallel plates composed of ideal metals in vacuum, the results reduce to Casimir’s.[13]
[edit] Measurement

One of the first experimental tests was conducted by Marcus Sparnaay at Philips in Eindhoven, in 1958, in a delicate and difficult experiment with parallel plates, obtaining results not in contradiction with the Casimir theory,[14][15] but with large experimental errors. Some of the experimental details as well as some background information on how Casimir, Polder and Sparnaay arrived at this point [1] are highlighted in a 2007 interview with Marcus Sparnaay.

The Casimir effect was measured more accurately in 1997 by Steve K. Lamoreaux of Los Alamos National Laboratory,[16] and by Umar Mohideen and Anushree Roy of the University of California at Riverside.[17] In practice, rather than using two parallel plates, which would require phenomenally accurate alignment to ensure they were parallel, the experiments use one plate that is flat and another plate that is a part of a sphere with a large radius. In 2001, a group at the University of Padua finally succeeded in measuring the Casimir force between parallel plates using microresonators.[18]
[edit] Regularisation

In order to be able to perform calculations in the general case, it is convenient to introduce a regulator in the summations. This is an artificial device, used to make the sums finite so that they can be more easily manipulated, followed by the taking of a limit so as to remove the regulator.

The heat kernel or exponentially regulated sum is

\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| \exp (-t|\omega_n|)

where the limit t\to 0^+ is taken in the end. The divergence of the sum is typically manifested as

\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{C}{t^3} + \textrm{finite}\,

for three-dimensional cavities. The infinite part of the sum is associated with the bulk constant C which does not depend on the shape of the cavity. The interesting part of the sum is the finite part, which is shape-dependent. The Gaussian regulator

\langle E(t) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| \exp (-t^2|\omega_n|^2)

is better suited to numerical calculations because of its superior convergence properties, but is more difficult to use in theoretical calculations. Other, suitably smooth, regulators may be used as well. The zeta function regulator

\langle E(s) \rangle = \frac{1}{2} \sum_n \hbar |\omega_n| |\omega_n|^{-s}

is completely unsuited for numerical calculations, but is quite useful in theoretical calculations. In particular, divergences show up as poles in the complex s plane, with the bulk divergence at s=4. This sum may be analytically continued past this pole, to obtain a finite part at s=0.

Not every cavity configuration necessarily leads to a finite part (the lack of a pole at s=0) or shape-independent infinite parts. In this case, it should be understood that additional physics has to be taken into account. In particular, at extremely large frequencies (above the plasma frequency), metals become transparent to photons (such as x-rays), and dielectrics show a frequency-dependent cutoff as well. This frequency dependence acts as a natural regulator. There are a variety of bulk effects in solid state physics, mathematically very similar to the Casimir effect, where the cutoff frequency comes into explicit play to keep expressions finite. (These are discussed in greater detail in Landau and Lifshitz, "Theory of Continuous Media".)
[edit] Generalities

The Casimir effect can also be computed using the mathematical mechanisms of functional integrals of quantum field theory, although such calculations are considerably more abstract, and thus difficult to comprehend. In addition, they can be carried out only for the simplest of geometries. However, the formalism of quantum field theory makes it clear that the vacuum expectation value summations are in a certain sense summations over so-called "virtual particles".

More interesting is the understanding that the sums over the energies of standing waves should be formally understood as sums over the eigenvalues of a Hamiltonian. This allows atomic and molecular effects, such as the van der Waals force, to be understood as a variation on the theme of the Casimir effect. Thus one considers the Hamiltonian of a system as a function of the arrangement of objects, such as atoms, in configuration space. The change in the zero-point energy as a function of changes of the configuration can be understood to result in forces acting between the objects.

In the chiral bag model of the nucleon, the Casimir energy plays an important role in showing the mass of the nucleon is independent of the bag radius. In addition, the spectral asymmetry is interpreted as a non-zero vacuum expectation value of the baryon number, cancelling the topological winding number of the pion field surrounding the nucleon.
[edit] Casimir effect and wormholes
Wiki letter w.svg This section requires expansion.

Exotic matter with negative energy density is required to stabilize a wormhole.[19] Morris, Thorne and Yurtsever pointed out that the quantum mechanics of the Casimir effect can be used to produce a locally mass-negative region of space-time,[20] and suggested that negative effect could be used to stabilize a wormhole to allow faster than light travel. This concept has been used extensively in science fiction.
[edit] Analogies and the Dynamic Casimir Effect

A similar analysis can be used to explain Hawking radiation that causes the slow "evaporation" of black holes (although this is generally visualised as the escape of one particle from a virtual particle-antiparticle pair, the other particle having been captured by the black hole).

The dynamical Casimir effect is the production of particles and energy from an accelerated boundary, often referred to as a 'moving mirror'[21] or 'motion-induced radiation'.

Constructed within the framework of quantum field theory in curved spacetime, the dynamical Casimir effect has been used to better understand acceleration radiation, i.e. the Unruh effect.

Moving mirrors create entropy, particles, energy and gravitational-like effects. In analogy to the event horizon of a black hole, an accelerated mirror amplifies quantum field vacuum fluctuations.

An experimental verification of the dynamical Casimir effect is still lacking, although for the first time, an experiment is being conducted that aims at measuring the dynamical Casimir effect.[22] It uses the effective motion of a wall of a superconducting microwave resonant cavity. The effective motion is produced by periodic illumination of a semiconductor slab by means of an ultra-high-frequency amplitude modulated laser.
[edit] Repulsive forces

There are few instances wherein the Casimir effect can give rise to repulsive forces between uncharged objects. In a seminal paper, Evgeny Lifshitz showed (theoretically) that in certain circumstances (most commonly involving liquids), repulsive forces can arise.[23] This has sparked interest in applications of the Casimir effect toward the development of levitating devices. Other scientists have also suggested the use of gain media to achieve a similar levitation effect,[24] though this is controversial[citation needed] because these materials seem to violate fundamental causality constraints and the requirement of thermodynamic equilibrium. An experimental demonstration of the Casimir-based levitation was recently demonstrated by the Capasso group at Harvard through experiments involving a gold-coated particle and silica thin film immersed in bromobenzene.[25]
[edit] Applications

It has been suggested that the Casimir forces have application in nanotechnology, in particular silicon integrated circuit technology based micro- and nanoelectromechanical systems, and so-called Casimir oscillators.[26]
[edit] See also
Physics portal

* Van der Waals force
* Casimir pressure

[edit] References

1. ^ Cyriaque Genet, Francesco Intravaia, Astrid Lambrecht and Serge Reynaud(2004)"Electromagnetic vacuum fluctuations,Casimir and Van der Waals forces"
2. ^ The Force of Empty Space on Physical Review Focus
3. ^ A. Lambrecht, The Casimir effect: a force from nothing, Physics World, September 2002.
4. ^ American Institute of Physics News Note 1996
5. ^ R. L. Jaffe(2005)"The Casimir Effect and the Quantum Vacuum"
6. ^ Photo of ball attracted to a plate by Casimir effect
7. ^ "The Casimir effect: a force from nothing". physicsworld.com. 2002-09-01. http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/print/9747. Retrieved 2009-07-17.
8. ^ Astrid Lambrecht,Serge Reynaud and Cyriaque Genet"Casimir In The Nanoworld"
9. ^ E. L. Losada"Functional Approach to the Fermionic Casimir Effect"
10. ^ For a brief summary, see the introduction in R. Passante, S. Spagnolo: Casimir-Polder interatomic potential between two atoms at finite temperature and in the presence of boundary conditions
11. ^ IE Dzyaloshinskii, EM Lifshitz, LP Pitaevskii: General theory of van der Waals' forces
12. ^ Dzyaloshinskii IE & Kats EI Casimir forces in modulated systems
13. ^ F. Intravaia, C. Henkel & A. Lambrecht: The role of surface plasmons in the Casimir effect
14. ^ M.J. Sparnaay, "Attractive forces between flat plates", Nature 180, 334 (1957)
15. ^ M.J. Sparnaay, "Measurement of attractive forces between flat plates", Physica 24, 751 (1958)
16. ^ S. K. Lamoreaux, "Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 µm Range", Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 5–8 (1997)
17. ^ U. Mohideen and Anushree Roy, "Precision Measurement of the Casimir Force from 0.1 to 0.9 µm", Phys. Rev. Lett. 81, 004549 (1998)
18. ^ G. Bressi, G. Carugno, R. Onofrio, G. Ruoso, "Measurement of the Casimir force between Parallel Metallic Surfaces", Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 041804 (2002)
19. ^ M. Visser (1995) Lorentzian Wormholes: from Einstein to Hawking, AIP Press, Woodbury NY, ISBN 1-56396-394-9
20. ^ M. Morris, K. Thorne, and U. Yurtsever, Wormholes, Time Machines, and the Weak Energy Condition, Physical Review, 61, 13, September 1988, pp. 1446 - 1449
21. ^ Fulling S A and Davies P C W 1976 Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A 348 393
22. ^ A Agnesi et al 2009 J. Phys.: Conf. Ser. 161 012028
23. ^ Dzyaloshinskii, I. E., Lifshitz, E. M. & Pitaevskii, L. P. The general theory of van der Waals forces. Adv. Phys. 10, 165–209 (1961)
24. ^ http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/1559579/Physicists-have-%27solved%27-mys...
25. ^ J. N. Munday,Federico Capasso& V. Adrian Parsegian(2009)"Measured long-range repulsive Casimir–Lifshitz forces"
26. ^ F.M. Serry, D. Walliser, and G.J. Maclay, The anharmonic Casimir oscillator (ACO) - the Casimir effect in a model microelectromechanical system, IEEE J. Microelectromech. Syst. 4, 193 (1995), http://www.quantumfields.com/IEEEJMEMSACO.pdf

[edit] Further reading

* Introductory
o Casimir effect description from University of California, Riverside's version of the Usenet physics FAQ.
o A. Lambrecht, The Casimir effect: a force from nothing, Physics World, September 2002.
o Casimir effect on Astronomy Picture of the Day
o Physicists have 'solved' mystery of levitation Telegraph interviews Prof. Ulf Leonhardt and Dr Thomas Philbin
* Papers, books and lectures
o H. B. G. Casimir, and D. Polder, "The Influence of Retardation on the London-van der Waals Forces", Phys. Rev. 73, 360-372 (1948).
o H. B. G. Casimir, "On the attraction between two perfectly conducting plates" Proc. Kon. Nederland. Akad. Wetensch. B51, 793 (1948)
o S. K. Lamoreaux, "Demonstration of the Casimir Force in the 0.6 to 6 µm Range", Phys. Rev. Lett. 78, 5–8 (1997)
o M. Bordag, U. Mohideen, V.M. Mostepanenko, "New Developments in the Casimir Effect", Phys. Rep. 353, 1–205 (2001), arXiv. (200+ page review paper.)
o Kimball A.Milton: "The Casimir effect", World Scientific, Singapore 2001,ISBN 981-02-4397-9
o G. Bressi, G. Carugno, R. Onofrio, G. Ruoso, "Measurement of the Casimir force between Parallel Metallic Surfaces", Phys. Rev. Lett. 88 041804 (2002)
o O. Kenneth, I. Klich, A. Mann and M. Revzen, Repulsive Casimir forces, Department of Physics, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, February 2002
o J. D. Barrow, "Much ado about nothing", (2005) Lecture at Gresham College. (Includes discussion of French naval analogy.)
o Barrow, John D. (2000). The book of nothing : vacuums, voids, and the latest ideas about the origins of the universe (1st American ed.). New York: Pantheon Books. ISBN 0-09-928845-1. (Also includes discussion of French naval analogy.)
* Temperature dependence
o Measurements Recast Usual View of Elusive Force from NIST
o V.V. Nesterenko, G. Lambiase, G. Scarpetta, Calculation of the Casimir energy at zero and finite temperature: some recent results, arXiv:hep-th/0503100 v2 13 May 2005

[edit] External links

* Casimir effect article search on arxiv.org
* G. Lang, The Casimir Force web site, 2002
* J. Babb, bibliography on the Casimir Effect web site, 2009

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